Learning Theories
Learning is defined as "any relatively permanent change in behaviour brought about through experience" (Hunter, 2011). Learning theories look at how information is absorbed, processed and retained during learning. Throughout my Principles of Learning class, I learned about three major paradigms of learning theory. They include Behaviourism, Cognitivism and Constructivism. The various learning theories, briefly described below, have shaped my notion of the different ways in which children are able to learn. I found the experiments conducted to frame the theories to be very interesting because many of them were conducted on animals then applied to humans, for example, Pavlov's rats. In addition, after learning about these theories and reflecting on them I realized that I have used some of them in my practice as well as used them while I was learning. For example, I am always learning through modeling. I believe that it is important to be aware of the different types of learning theories, especially the ones that are still prevalent in today's schools because it gives teachers an insight on how their children learn and process information as well as their behaviour.
Behaviourism
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Behaviourists define learning as the process leading to relatively permanent behavioural change or potential behavioural change. They believe that as children learn, they alter the way they perceive the environment, interpret the incoming stimuli, and the way they interact or behave. According to behaviourists, the mind is seen as a blank slate (tabula rasa) and behaviour is created through positive or negative reinforcement.
Ivon Pavlov proposed the theory of classical conditioning. Classiscal conditioning is learning through association. Pavlov stated that any stimulus can be paired with another to make an association, but only if it is done through the classical conditioning paradigm. Classiscal conditioning involves unconditioned stimulus (UCS), unconditioned response (UCR), neutral stimulus (NS), conditioned stimulus (CS) and conditioned response (CR). UCS is any stimulus that always and naturally causes a response. UCR refers to any response that always and naturally happens when presented a stimulus. NS is any stimulus that does not naturally cause a response that is associated with the UCR. CS refers to any stimulus that after association with a UCS causes a conditioned response. CR is any responses that happens after the presentation of a CS.
Stemming from Pavlov, B.F. Skinner established the theory of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is a process that tries to change behaviour through positive and negative reinforcement by making associations with a specific behaviour and a consequence. Positive reinforcement involves rewards that are given after the individual completes a desired behaviour where as negative reinforcement is the removal of an undesired outcome after the individual completes the desired behaviour.
Lastly, Bandura's social learning theory refers to learning by observing others' behaviours, attitudes, and outcomes of behaviours. It explains human behaviour through interactions between cognitive, behavioural and environmental influences.
Ivon Pavlov proposed the theory of classical conditioning. Classiscal conditioning is learning through association. Pavlov stated that any stimulus can be paired with another to make an association, but only if it is done through the classical conditioning paradigm. Classiscal conditioning involves unconditioned stimulus (UCS), unconditioned response (UCR), neutral stimulus (NS), conditioned stimulus (CS) and conditioned response (CR). UCS is any stimulus that always and naturally causes a response. UCR refers to any response that always and naturally happens when presented a stimulus. NS is any stimulus that does not naturally cause a response that is associated with the UCR. CS refers to any stimulus that after association with a UCS causes a conditioned response. CR is any responses that happens after the presentation of a CS.
Stemming from Pavlov, B.F. Skinner established the theory of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is a process that tries to change behaviour through positive and negative reinforcement by making associations with a specific behaviour and a consequence. Positive reinforcement involves rewards that are given after the individual completes a desired behaviour where as negative reinforcement is the removal of an undesired outcome after the individual completes the desired behaviour.
Lastly, Bandura's social learning theory refers to learning by observing others' behaviours, attitudes, and outcomes of behaviours. It explains human behaviour through interactions between cognitive, behavioural and environmental influences.
Constructivism
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Constructivism is where the learning happens through mental construction. This is done by the learner interacting with objects and events and as a result gains an understanding of its features. Thus, the learner constructs their own meaning and solutions to problems. Children are actively constructing their knowledge through interactions which allows them to assimilate new information and accommodate their understanding based on new information.
Lev Vygotsky's theory on social development focuses on relationships and connections between people and their social context in which they interact. Humans use tools such as speech and writing to make sense of their environment They develop these tools only to communicate their needs. Internalization of these tools leads to higher thinking skills. This theory has three major themes. They are social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development, the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) refers to anyone who has a better understanding than the learner, and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, this is where learning occurs.
Jerome Bruner proposed the theory of discovery learning. Discovery learning usually takes place during problem-solving situations where the learner uses his/her past experience and current knowledge to make relationships between what is being learned. By interacting and experimenting with their environment and objects on their own, children are more likely to remember concepts that they discovered on their own. There are various advantages to discovery learning. They are that it encourages active engagement, promotes motivation, promotes autonomy, responsibility, and independence, the development of creativity and problem solving skills, and individual learning experience.
Piaget developed a more comprehensive theory of development. It is a four-stage model of how the mind processes new information. The first stage, sensorimotor is from birth to two years. During this stage children build an understanding through interactions with the environment they are able to differentiate between self and objects and they learn through assimilation and accommodation. The second stage, preoperational, happens during ages two to four. During this stage children need concrete physical situations, and they begin to classify objects in simple ways. The third stage is concrete operational which occurs from seven years to eleven years. During this stage children begin to think abstractly and accommodation increases. The last stage of cognitive development is formal operational which is from ages eleven to fifteen. During this stage children do not need concrete objects to construct meaning and they are able to use deductive and hypothetical reasoning.
Lev Vygotsky's theory on social development focuses on relationships and connections between people and their social context in which they interact. Humans use tools such as speech and writing to make sense of their environment They develop these tools only to communicate their needs. Internalization of these tools leads to higher thinking skills. This theory has three major themes. They are social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development, the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) refers to anyone who has a better understanding than the learner, and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, this is where learning occurs.
Jerome Bruner proposed the theory of discovery learning. Discovery learning usually takes place during problem-solving situations where the learner uses his/her past experience and current knowledge to make relationships between what is being learned. By interacting and experimenting with their environment and objects on their own, children are more likely to remember concepts that they discovered on their own. There are various advantages to discovery learning. They are that it encourages active engagement, promotes motivation, promotes autonomy, responsibility, and independence, the development of creativity and problem solving skills, and individual learning experience.
Piaget developed a more comprehensive theory of development. It is a four-stage model of how the mind processes new information. The first stage, sensorimotor is from birth to two years. During this stage children build an understanding through interactions with the environment they are able to differentiate between self and objects and they learn through assimilation and accommodation. The second stage, preoperational, happens during ages two to four. During this stage children need concrete physical situations, and they begin to classify objects in simple ways. The third stage is concrete operational which occurs from seven years to eleven years. During this stage children begin to think abstractly and accommodation increases. The last stage of cognitive development is formal operational which is from ages eleven to fifteen. During this stage children do not need concrete objects to construct meaning and they are able to use deductive and hypothetical reasoning.
Cognitivism
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Cognitivists focus on the inner mental activities. They believe that opening the "black box" in the mind is crucial for understanding how people learn. Knowledge is seen as a schema and learning is when there is a change in the learners schemata. The mind is seen as a computer where information comes in, is processed and leads to outcomes.
The cognitive apprenticeship theory looks at six teaching methods that help students use, manage and discover knowledge. The first is modeling, where experts demonstrate a task and novices build a conceptual model of the task. Second, coaching is where expert gives hints and feedback to the novice. Scaffolding refers to supporting students in their learning. Articulation is verbalizing and demonstrating knowledge and thinking to clarify them. Reflection happens when students compare and analyze their ideas with others to highlight similarities and differences. Last, exploration is giving students the room to solve problems on their own.
Bandura's social learning theory states that people learn through observing others behaviours, attitudes and outcomes of behaviours. Social learning theory explains human behaviour in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioural, and environmental influences. There are four conditions for effective modeling. The first is attention. Various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid. Includes distinctiveness, effective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. Second factor is retention which is remembering what you paid attention to. This includes symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal. Factor three is reproduction where one reproduces the image. Which includes physical capabilities, and self-observation of reproduction. The last factor is motivation which refers to having a good reason to imitate. This includes motives such as past, promised and vicarious.
Attribution theory proposed by Bernard Weiner assumes that people try to determine why they do what they do. Attribution theory is about achievement. There is a three-stage process that underlies an attribution. The first stage is where behavior must be observed/perceived. Second, behavior must be determined to be intentional. Last, behavior attributed to internal or external causes.
The cognitive apprenticeship theory looks at six teaching methods that help students use, manage and discover knowledge. The first is modeling, where experts demonstrate a task and novices build a conceptual model of the task. Second, coaching is where expert gives hints and feedback to the novice. Scaffolding refers to supporting students in their learning. Articulation is verbalizing and demonstrating knowledge and thinking to clarify them. Reflection happens when students compare and analyze their ideas with others to highlight similarities and differences. Last, exploration is giving students the room to solve problems on their own.
Bandura's social learning theory states that people learn through observing others behaviours, attitudes and outcomes of behaviours. Social learning theory explains human behaviour in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioural, and environmental influences. There are four conditions for effective modeling. The first is attention. Various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid. Includes distinctiveness, effective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. Second factor is retention which is remembering what you paid attention to. This includes symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal. Factor three is reproduction where one reproduces the image. Which includes physical capabilities, and self-observation of reproduction. The last factor is motivation which refers to having a good reason to imitate. This includes motives such as past, promised and vicarious.
Attribution theory proposed by Bernard Weiner assumes that people try to determine why they do what they do. Attribution theory is about achievement. There is a three-stage process that underlies an attribution. The first stage is where behavior must be observed/perceived. Second, behavior must be determined to be intentional. Last, behavior attributed to internal or external causes.
References
Hunter, B. (2011). Learning and Behaviour Powerpoint.
Index of Learning Theories and Models. Retrieved October 19, 2012, from http://www.learning-theories.com.
Index of Learning Theories and Models. Retrieved October 19, 2012, from http://www.learning-theories.com.